HISTORY 2: FORM SIX: Topic 4 - THE RISE OF DICTATORSHIP IN GERMANY, ITALY AND JAPAN

HISTORY 2: FORM SIX: Topic 4 - THE RISE OF DICTATORSHIP IN GERMANY, ITALY AND JAPAN

history A level form 6 topic 4

HISTORY 2: FORM SIX: Topic 4 - THE RISE OF DICTATORSHIP IN GERMANY, ITALY AND JAPAN







TOPIC 4: THE RISE OF DICTATORSHIP IN GERMANY, ITALY AND JAPAN


A dictatorship is defined as an autocratic form of government in which the government is ruled by an individual, a dictator. In this government the power rests entirely on one person or group of people. A dictator is not restricted by law, constitution or other social and political factors within the state.


Characteristics of Dictatorship


1. Total wipe of Democracy. There is no democracy and no right to view or speech. 2. Militarism as a means of achieving political goals. 


3. Excessive use of terror and propaganda in order to enforce will and punish, arrest without trial and threat to bis opponent.


4. Anti- semi fire-excessive racial segregation


5. Personality cult. Dictatorship is characterized by excessive worshiping of a dictator, obey without a question.


6. Mass killings and genocides of the opponents


7. Absence of freedom of press. The dictator controls news papers, magazines, books and radios, TV stations.


8. Extreme nationalism and super patriotism. The glories of the nation are pictured as right and just.


9. Denial of international peace and cooperation to refrain from international peace arrangement.


One of the factors that contributed to the rise of dictatorships was the Great Depression of 1929 –1933.


An economic depression refers to a slump in the economy of the country. In 1929 the economy of the entire world was hit by a period of depression therefore the great depression refers to the world wide business slump of the 1930’s characterized by high unemployment and low business.


Benito Mussolini (Italy) and Adolf Hitler (Germany)



FASCISM AND MUSSOLINI IN ITALY


Fascism was a political system that existed in Italy during the interwar period i.e. the First and the Second World War. The Italian version of fascism was "fascio" meaning a group or squad of a few determined superior men. In the period after world war one, the word Fascism was used to denote groups of people organized to fight communism and socialism by force.


Basic Principles of Fascism:


(a) Extreme nationalism

An emphasis was laid on building up the greatness and prestige of the Italian state, with the implication that one's own nation is superior to others. Thus the fascists wanted Italy to become a power in Europe.


(b) A totalitarian system of government.

The Fascist party removed all free election and banned all trade unions. All communications and the press were restricted by the government. All radio programs and newspapers were closely contoured by the state. This was important to protect the interest of the state which was more important than the interest of the individual.


(c) A one party state.

All political parties except the Fascist party were banned so that Italy became a one party state like the Soviet Union. All political meetings and associations were forbidden. The Fascist party members were mostly the elite of the nation who would win mass support with thrilling speeches and skillful propaganda.


(d) Economic self sufficiency.

This was seen a precondition in the development of the state, the government had to direct the economic life of a country although this was not to be through public ownership of the means of production.


(e) Military strength and violence.

Military strength and violence were an integral part of life.Mussolini himself once remarked that, "Peace is absurd, fascism does not believe in it". Hence Mussolini fostered the myth that they had seized power by revolution


(f) Opposed capitalism.

Fascism was strongly against capitalism which was associated with exploitation and oppression.The Fascists hated western capitalist countries such as Britain and France.



RISE OF MUSSOLINI AND FASCISM IN ITALY


Mussolini was born in 1883; he was a violent and headstrong boy. He qualified as a teacher but soon he turned to journalism. Mussolini often remarked that Italy needed a dictator who will be able to make "a clean sweep".


Several factors can be advanced to explain why Mussolini and his Fascist party gained political in 1922. It should be emphasized that there was an atmosphere of general frustration in Italy.


(a) The Italians had been disappointed by the outcome of the Paris peace settlement in 1915. Italy joined the Great War and for the allied powers who had promised her many territories such as Trenton, part of Dalmatian, Trieste etc. Unfortunately Italy was not given all the territories she was promised. The Italians felt cheated in view that the gains from the conference could not match the costsof the war. The leadership was condemned as inefficient because it failed to defend the interest of the Italian.


(b) Spread of communism and socialism.

The growth of communism and socialism in Italy threatened the interests of the rich middle class. The rich middle class was the most powerful group that owned factories and industries in Italy. With the spread of the socialist propaganda to nationalize private enterprise, the economic interests of the middle class were threatened thus they gave their support to Mussolini whom they believed would stop the spread of communist.


(c) Internal insecurity.

Between 1919 and 1920, there was a wave of strikes accompanied by violence, coating of shops and occupation of factories by workers. Because of this it was clear that Italy needed a strong and determined leader which Mussolini seemed to be.


(d) Mussolini’s character and personality.

Mussolini had a strong character and personality and his fascist party was attractive to many sections of the Italian society Mussolini promised to store complete law and order, security and stability at a time when they were badly needed. In addition Mussolini also promised to transform Italy into a great world power.

 Benito Mussolini


THE VERSAILLES TREATY OF 1919


The Versailles treaty refers to the particular clauses (conditions or principles) which were given to Germany and which were accepted and signed by Germany at Versailles in 1919.The Versailles treaty was one of the post war settlements through which the leading powers during the Paris conference hoped to restore peace on the European continent and to avoid another crisis like World War one.


According to the peace markers (Britain, France and Russia) the Versailles treaty seemed to be an idea of peace settlement to the Germans, The treaty had a lot of unrealistic terms.


Terms of the Versailles Treaty


1. Germany armaments were strictly limited. Germany was only allowed a maximum of 100,000 troops just for domestic safety. Germany was not allowed to own military tanks and military air craft’s. The intention was to weaken Germany militarily and prevent her, from revenging; this would maintain peace in continental Europe.


2. War guilt clause.

The peace makers blamed Germany for the outbreak of world war one. The war guilty clause fixed the blame of World War one only on Germany and her allies.


3. War reparations.

Germany was to pay reparations for the damage done to the allied powers. The actual amount was not decided at Versailles but it was announced later that Germany was to pay 6,600 million USA dollars in 1921. This figure was too high to be effectively paid by a single country especially after the Great War.


4. Loss of territories.

Germany had to lose territories in Europe and Africa. In Europe Germany lost Alsace and Lorraine to France. In Africa Germany lost all her colonies such as Tanganyika, Togo, and Cameroon and present day Namibia which were taken and made mandate territories under the supervision of the League of Nations.


5. Establishment of the League of Nations.


The allied powers agreed to form an international organ which would maintain lasting peace in Europe. This organ was the League of Nations that was established in 1920.


The Versailles Treaty of 1919


Was the Versailles Treaty Realistic or Unrealistic?


Unrealistic

1. Treaty was imposed on Germany.

The treaty was forced upon the Germans at Versailles where they were simply presented with terms and told to sign without opposing. The allied powers especially France were given many chances to criticize Germany but the Germans were not given any chanceto defend themselves.


2. Disarmament

The disarmament was strongly objected by the Germans claiming that 100,000 troops were to maintain law and order at a time of political uncertainty. The Germans became more aggrieved, later as it became clear that other powers were not disarming.


3. War guilty clause

The war guilt clause was also contested by the Germans on the grounds that Germany alone was to blame for the outbreak of world war one. The Germans argued that if other powers had not acted the way they did like forming counter alliances perhaps World War one would have been avoided.


4. War reparations

The war reparations were the final humiliation for the Germans.The allied powers forced Germany to pay 6,600 million dollars. The figure was too high to be effectively paid by a single country especially after world war one.


5. Repartitioning of Germany.

Another weakness of the Versailles treaty lay in the repartitioning of Germany whereby Germany was forced to lose her territories to other European countries for example the port of Dazing was given to Poland therefore subjecting some Germans to polish control.


6. Dominated by the three big powers.

The Versailles treaty was not fair because the revolutions had been dominated by the three big powers i.e. Britain, France and the U.S.A. It’s even clear that the resolutions favored Britain and France at the expense of Germany for example France gained 15 years custody of the Saar valley which was rich in coal while Britain gained some of the mandate territories like Tanganyika.


Realistic

In spite of the above weakness and unfairness one can strongly argue that the Versailles treaty was fair to some extent.


1. It was fair to the French to regain Alsace and Lorraine which Germany had forcefully annexed following their defeat in 1871. This region was so rich in terms of coal and supported the French industrial revolution.


2. The treaty gave freedom to small nationalities that had been subjected to foreign domination for so long for example Poland was given her independence.


3. The treat forced Germany to disarm because; if it was not disarmed it would have been very difficult to maintain continental peace because Germany was capable of troubling Europe shortly thereafter.


4. It was fair for Poland a land locked country to be given access to the sea if it was to gain economic stability.


NB: Its worth noting that the French representatives had used the treaty not for achieving lasting peace in Europe but to revenge on Germany for defeating France in 1871. It is the unfairness in this treaty that caused future trouble for Europe and the world.

 The Versailles Treaty of 1919



THE ORIGINS OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION OF 1929 – 1933


The crisis of 1929 – 1932 was the most profound crisis of capitalist production. It took European economies for four years. The crisis struck deeper in the United States of America.


Various Causes account for the Occurrence of the Great Depression.


(a) Wall street crushes

Wall Street is a street in New York City where buying and selling of shares takes place. The Wall Street crush marked the beginning of the Great Depression. The prices of shares were increasing rapidly forcing people to buy more and more shares, but suddenly the prices of shares started to fall drastically and the people had bought so many shares started to sell them at give away prices. Large number of individuals and enterprises who had lent out money to the capitalists to make an interest ran bankrupt because the capitalists failed to pay back the loans.


(b) Over production in the United States of America.

After world war one the USA became the leading economic power. In the 1920’s American factories and farmlands produced more and more products expecting world trade to continue to expand. Due to increased production that lacked enough demands, prices of commodities declined reducing profits, capitalists responding by cutting down production which led to reduction of the work force leading to widespread unemployment.


(c) Nature of capitalists’ production

The capitalists believed in the Laissez faire policy whereby the government does not intervene in economic activities, due to the tendency of capitalists to compete with one another; they tend to produce more than the existing demands which leads to fall in prices and therefore the fall in profits forces the capitalists to reduce production and close their factories which leads to unemployment.


(d) Concentration of wealth in the hands of the minority and poverty in the hands of the majority This lead to disproportion between investment and consumption. Due to poverty there will be inadequate demand which forces prices to fall leading to reduction in profits thus the capitalists are forced to reduce production and reducing the workforce which leads to widespread unemployment.


(e) Interdependence of countries.

Due to the interdependence of countries, a crisis in one country was bound to have serious consequences in another country. This explains why the Wall Street crush in the USA forced her to withdraw the loans that she had lent out to European countries hence having disastrous consequences in the European countries for example Germany failed to pay the war reparations.


(f) Protectionist policies.

Poor economic policies like protectionism were also for causing the Great depression. The USA during the inter war period pursued protectionism whereby it carried out discriminative policies against world economies. The USA introduced the “MC cumber tariff”in 1922 to shelter her economies against imports from other nations.


(g) Effects of World War 1.

The effects of world war one also contributed to the outbreak of the Great Depression.World war one lead to high production, low prices and profits hence was contributing to the Great Depression.


The struggling mother of a migrant family at a temporary camp in California during the Great Depression


Impact of the Great Depression on Europe and America


(Factors for rise of dictatorship)

The Great Depression had a tremendous impact on the metropolitan economies for a period of four years. The effects are the following:


(a) Massive unemployment.

The Great Depression was characterized with low prices that let to reduction in profit; the decline in profits compelled the capitalists to retrench workers thus leading to Massive unemployment rose from 3.2% in 1929 to 24.9% in 1939.


(b) Decline in production.

There was a massive fall in the levelof production activities; the Great Depression was characterized with falling prices and profits which forces the capitalists to reduce production and in some cases to close their industries and factors.


(c) Widespread poverty.

The Great Depression led to widespread poverty both in the United States of America and Europe. Poverty was due to low purchasing power which was caused by massive unemployment.


(d) Collapse of the agricultural sector.

The Great Depression contributed to the collapse of the agricultural sector, the fall in production was caused by the rising prices of farm implements such as tractors and fertilizers. Due to the rise of prices, farmers could not purchase the farm implements thus contributing to the collapse of the agricultural sector.


(e) Inflation

The Great Depression contributed to widespread inflation in both the United States of America and Europe. The Great Depression was characterized by low levels of production which later on pushed up prices due to rising demand for goods. In 1929 countries such as Germany and Britain were characterized by hyper inflation that reduced the value of their currencies.


(f) Collapse of international trade

The Great depression contributed to the decline of international trade because it was associated with hyper inflation which contributed to loss of the value of money thus discouraging trade among countries. The Great depression also contributed to the collapse of many commercial banks, this too contributed to the collapse of international trade.


(g) Rise of dictatorship in Europe for example Italy and Germany

(h) Decline in working conditions.



NAZISM IN GERMANY


The world Nazism comes from the world “Nazi” which was a popular abbreviation for a member of Adolf Hitler’s political party called the National socialist party. Nazism was a dominant political system that arose during the inter war period. It was dominant in Germany.


Characteristics of Nazism


(a) The destruction of democracy.

The National socialist party removed all free elections and banned all trade unions. All communications and the press were restricted by the government. All radio programs and news papers were closely controlled by the state.


(b) Adoption of a one party state.

All political parties except the National socialist party were banned, so that the Germany became a one party statelike the Soviet Union. All political meetings and associations were forbidden.


(c) Glorification of the military.

There was creation of a large and strong military and police machinery. Hitler created a huge police force and a tough secret police called the "Gestapo". After 1933 Hitler withdrew Germany from the League of Nations and embarked on a policy of rearmament.


(d) Racism

The Nazi philosophy always emphasized Germany hatred for all foreign races especially the Jews. German text books were rewritten to fit in with the Nazi philosophy; the most obvious were History and Biology. History was distorted to reflect Hitler’s views that great thing can only be achieved by using force while Biology was dominated by the Nazi race theory which reflected the greatness of Germans as opposed to other nationalities.


(e) Expansionism

Hitler’s political party had two political aims,:-

- Re–uniting Germany that had been split by the allied powers in 1919.

- Obtaining for Germany a leading role in Europe in the form of oversees colonies.

In March 1938 Germany troops entered Austria without resistance and controlled it for seven years. They again over ran Czechoslovakia with little resistance and in 1939 they invaded Poland with the aim of liberating one million Germans.


(f) Dominated by totalitarianism.

Nazism was dominated by totalitarianism, Nazism believed that, “nothing should be above the state, nothing outside the state and nothing against the state” Hitler used to make remarks like, believe! Obey! Fight”


(g) Against capitalism.

Nazism was strongly against capitalism which was associated with exploitation and oppression. The Nazis hated Western capitalist countries such as Britain and France.

 Adolf Hitler


Reasons for the Rise of Nazism in Germany


(a) The effects of the Versailles treaty.

The treaty was too harsh for Germany, for example it involved the partitioning of Germany and forcing her to pay reparations that were fixed at 6.5 million pounds. Hitler promised to overthrow the Versailles treaty and rebuild Germany into a great power again, hence the majority of Germans turned to Hitler and the Nazi party.


(b) The effects of the Great Depression.

The economic hardships brought about by the great depression shook the basis of the Weimar republic’s existence. Between 1929 and 1933, the unemployment problem worsened for example 6 million Germans were unemployed. The USA withdrew her loans scheme from the Germans which led to the decline in wages and fall in industrial production. The majority of the Germans turned to Nazism.


(c) The weakness of the Weimar republic.

The Weimar republic was declared after Kaiser William 11 fled in 1918. It was the first democratic republic with a democratic constitution.However the republic had a democratic constitution. However the republic had so many problems for example it lacked support from the Germans because they argued that it accepted the humiliating and unpopular Versailles treaty with its harsh terms consequently most of the Germans supported the Nazi party.


(d) Effects of world one.

The defeat of Germany in the Great War frustrated many Germans. Germans nationalists like Hitler often remarked that Germany was not defeated, but simply betrayed by the Kaiser’s government. There was widespread discontent in Germany, there was low production that led to scarcity of goods therefore contributing to hyper inflation for example in 1923 one British pound was equivalent to 20,000,000,000,000 marks where as in 1918 it was only 20 marks with all these hardships, the Germans turned to Hitler.


(e) The fear of a socialist’s revolution.

The bourgeoisie supported the Nazi party with the hope that it will keep out the communist policies and communism itself. Communism advocates for nationalization of private enterprises and redistribution of wealth hence the bourgeoisie decided to support Hitler who will protect their enterprises.


(f) The role of Hitler.

As soon as Hitler was appointed chancellor, he banned all political parties and declared the Nazi party as the only legal party thus playing a leading role to the rise of Nazism in Germany.


Factors for the Rise of Hitler into Power in Germany


Adolf Hitler was born in 1889 at Breionav, Austria Hungary on the border with Germany. Hitler earned his living by painting and selling post cards which obviously earned him little profits. In spite of this humble beginning and miserable experiences, Hitler became an outstanding politician and dictator on the European continent.  Several factors helped Hitler to rise to power:


(a) Popularity of the Nazi party.

The Nazi party was popular in Germany especially between 1932 and 1933. The party raised the hopes for national unity, revising a prosperous economy and improving the living conditions particularly for the unemployed. The party got support from the rich middle class namely the professionals, merchants, civil, servants and other white collar workers.


(b) Antipathy against the Versailles treaty.

Hitler became popular among the Germany nationalists because he promised to overthrow the Versailles settlement. Hitler reminded the Germans that the treaty would not be morally accepted because it discounted Germany yet it case Bismarck time and blood to build.


(c) The communist threat.

The big capitalists of Germany saw in Hitler the protection of their interests against the communists and the socialists. Communism and socialism had grown too strong in Germany because they advocated for nationalization and redistribution of wealth.


(d) Economic problems.

The economic hardships brought about by the great depression and world war one had disastrous effects in the Germans. There was general discontent and frustration which undermined people’s confidence in the Weimar Republic because it had no solutions, hence the Germans turned to Hitler.


(e) Strong personality.

It must be borne in mind that Hitler had a strong character in relation to his political opponents in 1933. He was the most powerful diplomatic figure in Germany politics and an orator of the 20 th century. He was so attractive to the Germans by his propaganda and political speeches. He exploited the corruption and mismanagement of the Weimar Republic.


(f) The weakness of the Weimar republic.

The Weimar republic was declared after Kaiser William II fled in 1918. It was the first democratic republic with a democratic constitution. However the republic had so many problems for example it lacked support from the Germans because they argued that it accepted the humiliating and unpopular Versailles treaty with its harsh terms consequently most of the Germans supported the Nazi party.


(g) Effects of world war one.

The defeat of Germany in the Great War frustrated many Germans. German nationalists like Hitler after remarked that Germany was not defeated, but simply betrayed by the Kaisers government. There was widespread discontent in Germany; there was low production that led to scarcity of goods therefore contributing to hero inflation for example in 1923 one British pound was equivalent to 20,000,000,000 marks where as in 1918 it was only 20 marks, with all these hardships, the Germans turned to Hitler.

  Adolf Hitler


Effects of Fascism and Nazism in Europe


1. Outbreak of world war two.

The expansionist polices pursued by Mussolini had a great to play in the outbreak of the Second World War. Hitler and Mussolini wanted to control the whole world. Hitler attacked Australia, Czechoslovakia and finally Poland. The attack of Poland forced Britain and France to drop the appeasement policy and declare war on Germany that caused world war two.


2. Rise of dictators on the European continent.

The political systems of Nazism and Fascism contributed to the rise of dictators on the Europe continent. The governments of Germany and Italy were characterized with the absence of democracy. The press was under state control, political meetings and associations were prohibited. There was no freedom of speech.


3. Collapse of the League of Nations.

The policies of Hitler and Mussolini contributed greatly to the collapse of the League of Nations. The two leaders ignored the resolutions of the league, Italy attacked Ethiopia in 1935, and Germany attacked Austria in 1934 and Poland in 1939. The actions of Hitler and Mussolini weakened the League of Nations and accounted for the eventual collapse in 1945.


4. Weakened the economies of Europe. Nazism contributed to the decline of the economy of Germany and other European nations. Nazism contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War that contributed to widespread insecurity that disrupted economic activities.The European powers also invested many resources in the war, which contributed to their decline as world powers.


5. Terror and violence.

The policies of Nazism and Fascism brought terror and violence in Europe. Nazism was associated with racial segregation. The Germans believed that their race was the most superior race, they argued that the Jews were contaminating their race hence there is a need to eliminate them. Hitler killed many Jews in concentration camps; it is believed that six million Jews direct died in Nazi hands.


6. Abolition of free market economy.

The policies of Hitler and Mussolini contributed to the abolition of the free market policy in Germany and Italy. The state controlled the economy through price controls and quotas. There was also creation of massive public work as a strategy to address the unemployment problem.


7. Rise of Zionism.

The actions of Hitler to kill many Jews in concentration camps led to the formation of Zionist movement, this movement aimed at uniting all the Jews and settles them in Palestine. This movement started in the late 19 th century and reached its peak in 1948 after Hitler’s Holocaust. This led to the establishment of the state of Israel. The movements name is derived from Zion, the will on which the temple of Jerusalem was located. 


Benito Mussolini 

citylab

HISTORY 2: FORM SIX: Topic 3 - IMPERIALISM AND TERRITORIAL DIVISION OF THE WORLD COLONIZATION OF AFRICA

HISTORY 2: FORM SIX: Topic 3 - IMPERIALISM AND TERRITORIAL DIVISION OF THE WORLD COLONIZATION OF AFRICA       

history A level form 6 topic 3

TOPIC 3

IMPERIALISM AND TERRITORIAL DIVISION OF THE WORLD (COLONIZATION OF AFRICA)


IMPERIALISM


Imperialism can be defined as the expansion beyond one’s border, either by conquest, influence or by both. It involves one going beyond borders searching for market and raw materials.


Types of Capitalism

· Commercial capitalism (1500 –1750) or mercantilism

· Competitive / industrial capitalism (1750 – 1875)

· Monopoly / Finance capitalism (1875 - present)


COMMERCIAL CAPITALISM / MERCHANT CAPITALISM


During this stage, Europeans closed their borders in search of precious metals such as gold and silver. The powers were not interested in the social and economic transformation of the societies they met, they were only interested in plundering and raiding.Although this type of capitalism was characterized by primitive accumulation of capital,it also stimulated the industrial revolution in Europe.


COMPETITIVE / INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM


This type of capitalism was characterized by the mushrooming of many manufacturing industries that were small in size but competing in the production and maximization of profit. The main objectives of this type of capitalism were to:-

(i) Acquire markets for European manufactured goods.

(ii) Procure raw materials.


During the industrial capitalism, there is a bitter struggle among capitalistic for increasing production levels so as to maximize profits. In the course of these struggles some capitalists are destroyed while others grow rich; therefore to survive the capitalists must increase labor productivity which is done through the introduction of more efficient machines.


Features of competitive industrial capitalism


(i) The role of the state is minimal because of the belief in free trade policy or sometimes called “Laissez faire” policy under free trade, the production and distribution of goods and services is determined by the market forces and not the state.


(ii)Most enterprises are small and competitive, they complete among themselves to increase production and maximize profits.There is nor Monopoly in the markets or investments.


(iii) Tariff policies are still protective in character that is they aim at protecting home industries.


(iv) Banks are not controlling production; they are only agents of payments that are receiving deposits.


(v) Raw materials are important but not crucial, that is the European powers could do without raw materials from Africa.


Effects of competitive capitalism in Africa


(a) Abolition of slave trade.

The European powers abolished slave trade in Africa so as to get markets where they can sell their manufactured goods and raw materials.The European powers wanted the market but slaves would not provide them, hence this necessitated the abolition of slave trade.


(b) Introduction of legitimate trade.

Legitimate trade refers to the type of trade that involved the buying and selling of natural resources; the European powers introduced legitimate trade which would make it possible to get raw materials such as palm oil, rubber and coffee needed by the European powers.


(c) Division of Africa among the European trading companies that shared Africa amongst them. These companies included British South Africa company that controlled South Africa, Zimbabwe + Zambia while the imperial British East Africa company controlled Uganda, Kenya and Zanzibar. These companies were searching for markets and raw materials that were needed by their respective government.


(d) Fall and rise of some states.

Competitive industrial capitalism led to the fall some states in Africa because it involved the abolition of slave trade on which some states like Dahomey depended on, it also contributed to the rise of states because African state accumulation a lot of wealth out of the legitimate trade which was used to build states such as the Kingdom of King Jaja of Opobo.


(e) Influx of foreigners.

It let to the influx of many foreigners, especially Europeans. These groups of Europeans included Explorers, Missionaries and traders, who later on paved way for the colonization of Africa by Europe.






MONOPOLY CAPITALISM


Monopoly capitalism was characterized by the predominance of monopolies. Monopolies were formed to reduce stiff competition in the production process.

It is subdivided into:

(a) 1830 - 1947

This was characterized by colonization of territories by individual countries.

(b) 1947 – present:

This was characterized by colonization of territories by more than one country.


Characteristics of Monopoly Capitalism


Lenin identified five characteristics of monopoly capitalism:-

a. Concentration and centralization of capital.

Under monopoly capitalism, Production becomes more concentrated and centralized under one big company.

Monopoles may also set prices very low with objectives of preventing more industries joining the market, so that they can maintain their monopoly.


b. Merging of bank capital and industrial capital to form finance capital.

In their drive for more profit, monopolistic companies did not confine only on the production of commodities but also invest in the banking sector. Under monopoly capitalism, bank does not only act as agents of payments but also control production boards on monopolistic companies such as British Petroleum (BP) and General Motors’ (GM).


c. Export of capital as opposed to export of commodities.

Under Monopoly capitalism, monopolistic companies dominated the production and market in their countries but they now cross their borders to control market and production in other countries hence they turn into international monopolistic associations. These associations divide the world among themselves; examples are General motors (GM), British Petroleum (BP) and Moil Company.


d. Completion of division of the world among the imperialist powers.

During this stage all countries are drawn in to the orbit of capitalism. The colonial system became part of the capitalist world economy whereby the capitalist sought for colonies to satisfy the needs of capitalism. These needs included market, raw materials, cheap labour and investment areas. When the 19 th which came close world capitalism retained all the basic features of capitalism while it developed new ones.



THE RISE OF GERMANY, ITALY AND ITS IMPACT


Nationalism can be defined as the desire to be free from foreign rule or occupation. European nationalism was a manifestation of the political will of the Europeans to free themselves from foreign domination and oppression. Nationalism in various European countries aimed at uniting the nations and liberates them from foreign control; this is what led to the German and Italian unification.


Since 1700, Nationalism became an important force in international relations; the development of European nationalism was closely linked with the development of monopoly capitalism. Due to the demands of monopoly capitalism, three was a need to protect none markets but protecting the markets meant unification which was achieved through nationalism. The rise of nationalism occurred along with the development of a political unit which is called a nation/state.


Factors that Contributed to the Rise of European Nationalism


(a) Development of monopoly capitalism.

Due to the demands of monopoly capitalism, there was a need to protect home markets but this meant unification which had to be achieved by getting rid of colonial rule.


(b) Dislike of foreign rule.

The major goal of nationalism was to unite the nations and free those from foreign rule or dominations, this goal led to the German and Italian unification that were protesting against French occupation.


(c) Education.

Education exposed the evils of colonial rule, hence stimulating nationalistic sentiments (feelings). Education made it possible for people to speak the same language, hence cultivating a strong sense of unity which facilitated the development of a main state.


(d) Improved communication.

The improvement of communication made it possible for people to travel from one place to another which cultivated a sense of unity that contributed to the rise of European nationalism.



THE ITALIAN UNIFICATION 1820 –1870


The Italian had been subjected to foreign domination's for many years for example, towards the end of the 19 th Century; Napoleon invaded Italy in the famous Italian campaign whereby the Italians were put under French control.


Following Napoleons’ defeat in 1815, the Italians were again subjected to Australian domination until 1870 when they regained. The Italian disliked foreign domination and on the growth of nationalism, different nationalist movements were organized by different leaders.

(i) In 1820, they formed the carbonari movement which was mainly an organization of intellectuals.

(ii) In 1831, Givseppe Mazzini founded the young Italy movement.


There were various stages in the Italian unification in which different territories were liberated from Austrian control. It should be noted that the liberation of Rome completed the Italian unification. The greatest maker of the Italian unification was Count Camillo Cavo.


Italian Unification


Obstacles in the Italian Unification before 1850


(a) The position of pope and the influence of the Catholic Church.

The pope could not fight with Austria because it was a major Catholic stateand consequently feared opposition from all Catholics. Without the support of the pope, the unification of Italy was impossible. The pope enjoyed international sensitivity from all the Catholics of the world thus attacking the pope would force ambitious Catholic state to protect the pope.


(b) Military superiority of the Australian.

The Austrian empire had a well trained organized and equipped army. The Austrians also had a well established spying network on the other hand; the Italian nationalists were not military strong by 1848. The carbonari movement and young Italy movement did not have organized armies.


(c) Metternich and the Metternich system.

Metternich had divided Italy into small and different states, each with its own parliament. The Italians were one nationality but they could not agree on a single plan because of the political meetings, associations and freedom of the press were banned. A strong detective system kept Metternich informed of all those movements that were fighting for independence and they were consequently controlled.


(d) Economic backwardness of Italy.

Economic backwardness of the Italian states partly hindered the struggle for independence. The Italians depended largely on subsistence farming, the level of education were also low. There were also small middle class to champion a serious revolution against the Austrians. The Italian economy lacked a strong industrial sector, thus without a sound economic base, the nationalist movements were frustrated due to financial difficulties.


(e) Lack of a clear and able leadership.

This was a great hindrance in the struggle for independence before 1849. The Italians lacked ready and determined leadership against Austrian domination. King Charles Albert of Piedmont would have united the Italians if he had accepted to lead the revolution in 1848, but he feared Austrian might and he reluctantly accepted the offer.


(f) Lack of mass mobilization.

Most Italians up to 1849 were not nationally conscious of the need for unification and independence. The Carbonari movement was simply on organization of intellectuals, while the young Italian movements tried to use the youth to appeal to all sections of the masses, thus these movements failed to win enough support from the masses.



THE GERMAN UNIFICATION 1820 – 1871


For a long period, German states were victims of foreign domination, under Napoleon Bonaparte, the German states were grouped together to form the Rhine confederation, which was put under French control. After the downfall of Napoleon, the German states were again grouped together to form the German confederation, which was put under Austrian control. Between 1815 and 1848, the forces of nationalism became very strong and the Germans began demanding for a united and a free Germany, but with little success because of the following obstacles.


Germany Unification


Obstacles in the Germany Unification


(a) Disunity at the Frankfort parliament.

The members of the parliament lacked a common plan; the nationalists wanted a united and free Germany, while the liberals wanted a democratic and a constitutional government. There were also divisions based on religion, whereby the Catholics wanted Austrian leadership to remain and the Protestants (Anglicans) wanted a united Republic.


(b) Austrian Military might.

The Austrians had a well trained, equipped and a large army contrary to the Germans who lacked a strong and an organized army thus without it, they found it difficult to defeat the Austrians, so as to regain their independence.


(c) Lack of a sound economy.

German states depended on agriculture as the basis of their economy. Transport and communication were not yet well developed, hence without a sound economic base; the Germans could not strengthen their military power and mobilize the local population against the Austrians.


(d) Lack of able leadership.

The revolution in PRUSSIA lacked a strong and able leadership against Austria domination. King Fredrick William IV of Prussia would have led the revolution but he was opposed to liberalism, thus without a capable and able leadership, the nationalists movements failed to achieve their objectives by 1849.


(e) Foreign intervention of Russia.

Czar Nicholas I was opposed to liberal movements both in Russia and its neighbours. He had used the militaryto crash liberal movements in Russia.

It was therefore not a surprise that the establishment of a liberal government in Germans would face opposition from Russia, indeed in 1849; Russia sent her troops to crash liberal movements in Germany.


Despite all their problems, German unification was attained in 1871 and the German empire was proclaimed at Versailles.


Impacts/ Effects of European Nationalism in Europe


1. European nationalism led to the emergence of new states such as Greece, Belgium, Italy, Germany, etc. This was because these nations unified themselves in order to be strong and be able to compete with the former strong nations such as France and Britain, in terms of market, raw materials, industrialization, military and areas for investment.


2. Led to intensification of national rivalries and antagonism among European powers. This was because the former big powers which were France and Britain started to be in antagonism with the newly unified nations like Germany and Italy in terms of raw materials, areas for investments and markets.


3. It led to emergence of hostile military alliance which were the triple alliance and the triple entente of Britain, France and Russia.


4. It led to the disturbance of balance of power in Europe. The balance of power which was agreed at the Vienna congress in 1815 was upset by Germany after it had undergo unification because after unification Germany started to be powerful in terms of military, industrialization, monopolization of trade, look for market, areas for investment and therefore the power which was formerly dominated was now disturbed by the newly unified countries.


5.It led to the breakout of the world war i.e. World War I and World War II; this wars affected world socially, economicallyand politically.


6.The Unification led to the rise of the new imperialism in Europe from 1850’s.

This was because European nationalism accelerated the rise and development of nationalism in Europe which brought expansionist tendencies among European powers to go in other parts of the world to expand their boundaries.


Effects of European Nationalism in Africa


1. It led to the influx of agents of colonialism in Africa like explorers, missionaries,and traders who searched the information about the potential strategic and navigable rivers of Africa and they sent information to their countries about the wealth found in African continent.


2. Led to the scramble for African continent; this was because those agents of colonialism started to explore and search the potential information about African continent. Example fertile soil for agriculture, navigable rivers, i.e. Niger delta, Congo basin etc. mining areas and thereafter their mother nations rushed to Africa to look for those areas.


3. Led to the partition of Africa after the scramble which was done by European big powers about the potential of African continent; therefore the partition of Africa was done during the Berlin conference of November 1884 to February 1885.


4. Led to colonization of Africa in the last quarter of the 19 th C where by the big powers after the scramble for Africa were able to control Africa in all aspects in order to protect and satisfy European interests especially for the development of capitalism in Europe.


5. Led to the establishment of colonial state as an extension of metropolitan rule (colonial rule) in Africa, therefore the work of colonial state was to make sure that the interest of colonialism like the establishment of colonial economy such as plantations settlers and peasant economy, mining, establishment of administration etc. was to be achieved for the interests of colonialist.

6. It led to the establishment of colonial economy in African continent which was the work done by colonial state in order to make sure that European colonialists should continue on the expense of Africans.


7. Led to destruction of African culture by introducing European culture. Example African culture practices things such as traditions, customs, norms, dressing styles, eating, marriage, etc. were totally forbidden and destroyed by Europeans.


8.Led to the outbreak of the world wars i.e. WWI of 1914-1918 and WWII of 1939-1945, these world wars affected Africain all aspects of life such as occurrence of deaths, famine, Economic hardship, change of colonial masters etc.



MANIFESTATIONS OF EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM IN THE 19 TH CENTURY


Military alliances and the notion of European balance of power


A) MILITARY ALLIANCES


The defeat of France during Franco – Prussian war of 1871 had a tremendous impact in Europe. Before the war, the European powers were Britain and France but after the war, the new powers were Britain and Germany which meant that there was a shift in the balance of power. After the defeat of France, Bismarck directed his efforts to isolate France in order to maintain her in a weak and defeated position by farming military alliances.


Bismarck forged military alliances with different European countries, this included;


(a) The Dual Alliance of 1879.

In 1879, Germany and Austrian –Hungary signed a treaty which formed a defensive alliance called the “dual Alliance” This alliance was intended to strengthen and protect Germany from France and at the same time protect Austria – Hungary against Russia. By 1870, Austria – Hungary was threatened by Russian Army ships in the Balkan regions and feared that Russia might attack her.


(b) The Triple Alliance of 1882.

In 1882, Bismarck formed the Triple Alliance which was intended to be defensive and to completely isolate and weaken France. The triple alliance came into existence by admitting Italy into the “Dual Alliance”.

France and Italy had both been interested in Tunisia; Italy became frustrated and started looking for alliance against France. The Triple alliance would therefore defend Germany, Austria and Italy.


(c) The Dual Alliance of 1892.

By 1992, both France and Russia felt insecure and they decided to make a defensive agreement called the Dual Alliance against the triple alliance of 1882. In this alliance, the two powers agreed to help each other incase of an attack by Germany.


(d) The Anglo – Japanese Alliance of 1902.

For many years Britain had concentrated on looking after vast empire and had kept out of European affairs, this policy was known as splendid isolation. When her colonial rural such as France and Russia combined to form the dual alliance of 1892; Britain was forced to forge an alliance with Japan with the objective of protecting her economic interests in the Far East.


(e) The Triple Entente of 1907.

In 1907, Russia was admitted into the “Dual alliance”, which led to the formation of the Triple Entente, consulting of Britain, Russia and Japan. These powers agreed to help each other in case of war.

In order to maintain stability in Europe, the European powers adopted the nation of balance of power.


British Infantry saluted by French Infantry 1918


The Causes of Militarism and Arms Race in Europe in the 19 th C


Arms race, refers to the intense competition between nations to accumulate technologically advanced and military strategic weapon system. The most prominent instance of such competition was the rapid developed by the USA and the soviet union of more and better nuclear weapons during the cold war.

The term arms race its original usage describes a competition between two or more parties for military supremacy. Each party. Competes to produce large number of weapons, greater armies or superior military technology.


Factors for the Arms Race

Some of the factors for Arms Race in Europe are;


i. The need to maintain balance of power among nations so that no one nations should military be threat to other.


ii. The cold war that existed between U.S.A and U.S.S.R and their respective camps.


iii. The developed world war was looking for more influence and control in the third world countries and other saw armament as a way of increasing that capacity


iv. Armed race was meant to scare other countries of the world and make them fear the big powers such as U.S.A and U.S.S.R.


Impacts of the Armed Race


The following are some of the impacts of the armed race

i. Many people lost their lives due to the use of nuclear or chemical weapons e.g:- Nagasaki and Hiroshima in Japan during the second world war.


ii. It reduced the level of resources that could have been utilized in the provision of social and economic welfare of the people in the super power states and the world countries


iii. It sharpened the hostility between western block under U.S.A and Eastern Block under U.S.S.R.


iv. The emergence of terrorists. Using various weapons of mass destruction.



B) THE NOTION OF EUROPEAN BALANCE OF POWER


This refers to a policy whereby European powers used military alliances as the determining factor in maintaining stability in Europe.


The Factors that Led to the Use of this Policy


(a) Rise of European nationalism.

During this period, colonies were seen as a sign of prestige. They became a test and proof of a nation’s superiority. This belief was bound to force the European powers to look for colonies in Europe, thus disturbing the balance of power.


(b) Development of monopoly capitalism.

The development of capitalism to the monopoly stage had various demands in Europe. Due to monopoly capitalism, there was need for raw materials, markets and cheap labour which could only be satisfied through acquiring colonies. To prevent European countries from searching for colonies in Europe, the European powers adopted the notion of European balance of power so as to maintain stability.


(c) Emergence of Germany and Italy.

After Germany and Italy achieved their unification, they joined the race for colonies to meet the demands of monopoly capitalism. To maintain stability in Europe, The European powers decided to adopt a notion of European balance of power.

Due to monopoly capitalism, there was a need for markets, raw materials and investment areas. Their needs could only be achieved by acquiring colonies but the European countries were not supposed to look for colonies inside Europe, thus an outlet had to be created and this led to the scramble for and partition of Africa.



THE ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIALISM IN AFRICA


Colonialism refers to the domination or control of one country by another economically, politically and socially.


Reasons for the Colonization of Africa


The development of capitalism in Europe led to the industrial revolution which started in Britain in 1750 and by the end of 18 th Century Britain was the only industrialized nation in the world. However, in the 19 th Century, other European countries such as France, Belgium, Germany and Italy also industrialized. The industrialization of almost all European countries meant that there was no where to expand within Europe, hence there was need to find colonies.


From 1870, monopoly capitalism demanded for the following:-

- Markets

- Raw materials

- Cheap labor

- Investment areas

- Areas to resettle surplus labour force.


Therefore, it was these demands which made capitalism to change to its monopolistic stage called “imperialism”. Colonialism was therefore linked with the development of capitalism in Europe, in the sense that it was undertaken to meet the demands of monopoly capitalism.

 





AGENTS OF IMPERIALISM


Before the establishment of colonialism, the capitalist nations sent colonial agencies to pave way for colonial rule. These agents included;

- Explorers

- Missionaries

- Traders


How explorers, Missionaries and traders paved way for establishment of colonial rule in Africa.


(a) They reported about the wealth in Africa which would enrich the European capitalist countries. The information given by the Missionaries, Explorers and Traders excited the interests of European countries to come and seek their fortune in Africa. Dr. Living stone reported that East Africa had fertile soil and the environment was suitable for European settlements, given the economic conditions in Europe, such as the need for raw materials, they had to rush to Africa.


(b) They encouraged African chiefs to sign treaties which later became justified claims for the occupation of African territories. Moffat, an Anglican Missionary, encouraged chief Lubengula to sign a treaty with British, which eventually led to the British colonization of Zimbabwe.


(c) Some of the agents for example Christian missionaries’ brain washed the minds of the Africans through their preaching and teachings. They softened the minds of the Africans to be God fearing because of the preaching, devour African Christians believed that Christianity was the greatest gift from Europe and this was reflected in Nigeria and Buganda where the Africans welcomed colonization.


(d) The Christian missionaries paved way for the establishment of the colonies rule because they regarded colonial rule as necessary for both the spread of Christianity and the abolition of slave trade in Africa


(e) They chartered companies laid down the initial infrastructure those later facilitated colonial administration policies. The roads and railways became a source of reinforcement in terms of troops and manpower.


(f) They appealed to European government to come and occupy parts of Africa which they have visited and developed. For example Dr. Livingstone appealed to Britain to come and occupy central Africa and Britain responded by colonizing central Africa.



SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA


As capitalism developed stage by stage, it pressed different demands on Africa. During competitive industrial capitalism, the capitalist powers advocated for the abolition of slave trade because it was seen as a necessary for the acquisition of raw materials and markets. When competitive capitalism changed to monopoly capitalism, the capitalist powers were involved in a struggle to acquire colonies, a process called “The scramble for Africa.”


The scramble for Africa refers to the way European powers struggled to acquire colonies in Africa.


Partition of Africa refers to the difference steps taken by the colonial powers to divide Africainto territories and fixing colonial boundaries.

The major powers that were involved in this exercise were Britain, Germany, France and Belgium.


There were two theories that explain the scramble for and partition of Africa namely:


A) AFRO-CENTRIC THEORY (Marxist theory)


This theory claimed that the factors that led to the scramble for and partition of Africa were economic.


(i) The need for monopoly markets.

The need for monopoly markets came due to increase production of industrial products that lacked enough demands in Europe. To make matters worse, between 1823 and 1896, the world passed through a stand still economic depression where by trade came to stand still, prices were law and profits were small hence the capitalists put a lot of pressure on their government to acquire colonies for selling the manufactured commodities.


(ii) The need for tropical raw material.

The tropical treasure theory, put forward by Nobson and Lenin assert that Africa was partitioned because it was highly endowed with a lot of raw materials for industrial development in Europe hence the European powers rushed to Africa to acquire colonies that would act as sources of raw materials.


(iii) The need for cheap labour.

There was a contradiction between the employers and the workers whereby to maximize profits, the employers had to decrease wages and intensify exploitation. The workers, however resisted this through trade unions, they demanded higher wages and good working conditions all of which reduced the profit of the employers. The solution to this problem was to look for colonies in Africa where they can get cheap labour.


(iv) The need for investment areas.

Scholars such as Adam Smith claimed that the availability of excess capital for investments in European countries forced Europe to take part in the scramble for Africa. The capitalists had accumulated a lot of capital that they could not invest in Europe because the markets were saturated, to solve this crisis, they decided to look for colonies where they can invest their capital and obtain high rates of profits.


(v) The need to resettled surplus labour force.

The industrial revolution and the capitalist system produced not only surplus capital but also surplus labour force. As more and more machines came into use, more and more people found themselves out of work, the solution to this problem was found in the acquisition of colonies where surplus labor force could be settled.


B) EUROPEAN THEORY


This theory claims that political and social factors caused the scramble for Africa.


(i) Before the Franco – Prussian war 1871, the major European powers were Britain and France was defeated by Germany and she lost her territories of Alsace and Lorraine which were rich in coal and iron. The emergence of Germany changed the balance of power and this forced her to rush to Africa to acquire colonies. The defeat of France made her to rush to Africa to acquire colonies as a way of compensating for the loss in Europe.


(ii) Rise of European nationalism.

During the mid 19 th century, a tide of nationalism was seeping across Europe, extreme nationalism let to slogans like, “my country right or wrong” During this period, the possession of an Empire was seen as a test of nations strength , hence European powers rushed to Africa to acquire more and more colonies thus causing scramble.


Social Factors:


(i) Need to stop slave trade.

The European powers asserted that, they came to Africa to acquire colonies because of the need of stopping slave trade. They claimed that colonial rule was a necessity if slave trade was to be abolished completely in Africa.


(ii) Need to introduce Western Civilization.

The European powers argued that their civilization had reached the highest possible standards, thus they had a duty to impose it on those people who were not civilized, the Africans were believed to be uncivilized hence they struggledfor colonies so as to introduce Western civilization.


Strategic Factors:


Strategic factors were also one of the factors that led to the scramble for and partition of Africa. Britain controlled Uganda because she wanted to protect the source of river Nile; She controlled Kenya because of the sea route to India.

Britain and France struggled for Egypt because of the Suez Canal which shortened the route to India.



THE BERLIN CONFERENCE (1884 – 1885)


The Berlin conference gave international recognition to a struggle for colonies that had been going on for a long period of time. By the 1880’s the scramble for colonies in Africa had reached serious proportions and there were dangers that if it was not controlled, a major war may erupt among the European powers. To avoid the war, the chancellor of Germany, Otto Van Bismarck convened an international conference of European powers that had interests in Africa.

The conference took place between November 1884 and February 1885. The main aim of the conference was to ensure that the scramble for and partition of Africa takes place peacefully without resulting to a war.


Various European powers attended the conference, these included Britain, France, Germany, Spain and Belgium. Denmark and the USA attended as observers.



Berlin Conference


Principles of Berlin Conference


During the conference, a number of resolutions were reached by the European powers. These included the following;


(a) The principle of effective occupation.

This principle stated that all European powers that had colonies in Africa had to effectively control their colonies by establishing infrastructures such as roads and railways. The powers also agreed to maintain law and order in their colonies.


(b) Notification principles

This principle stated that in the process of colonial acquisition, the European powers had to notify or inform other powers about their colonial possessions so as to minimize clashes over the same colonies because the aim of the conference was to ensure that the scramble and partition of Africa takes place peacefully.


(c) Fire navigation on the Niger and Congo basins.

The European powers agreed that the Niger and the Congo basins will be free for navigation by all European powers. This was to avoid any European power from monopolizing the two water ways which may cause conflicts.


(d) Abolition of slave trade.

The European powers agreed to stop slave trade in their colonies and introduce legitimate trade. Legitimate trade would enable the capitalist powers to acquire markets and raw materials which were the needs of monopoly capitalism.



THE ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULEIN AFRICA


The partition of Africa marked the end of Africans political independence and the beginning of subjection to foreign rule. In the process of establishing colonial rule, the Europeans powers used different techniques depending on the nature and attitude of the native population towards colonial intrusion.


These techniques included the following:


(a) Treaty signing.

This was one of the most common techniques used by the Europeans to establish colonial rule in Africa. This method was used in areas that did not oppose the establishment of colonial rule. The colonial powers convinced African local leaders to sign treaties of protection, protecting them against their local and foreign rivals. It should be noted that these treaties were used by the colonial powers to control African territories. In Tanganyika Karl Peters signed treaties with African chiefs which led to German colonization of Tanganyika.


(b) Use of force.

Sometimes, the colonial powers used the military to establish colonial rule in Africa. This method was used in areas that resisted the establishment of colonial rule in East Africa, the Germans used the military against the Hehe in Tanganyika, and the British used the military against the Nandi in Kenya and Kabalega of Uganda. The colonial powers used the military because they were determined to exploit African resources.


(c) Alliances

This method was mainly used in areas where two societies were in conflictsin situation of enmity, the colonial powers allied with one society against the other and finally control all of them together. In Tanganyika the Germans allied with the Sangu and Bena against the Hehe, but after defeating the Hehe the Germans controlled all of them together. In central Africa, the British allied with chief Lewanyika of Lozi Kingdom against Lobengula but when Lobengula was defeated, the British controlled all of them together.


(d) Gun butt diplomacy.

This is the colonial powers used treaties of force rather than force itself to force Africans to submit to colonial rule. This method was used by the German in 1884 to force a Sultan of Zanzibar to submitto Karl Peters treaty. In 1897, the British used this method to force Jaja of Opobo to submit to their control.


(e) Mercenary technique.

This was a method whereby the colonial powers used Africans to fight against other Africans. The Africans, who were used had no blood ties with those being invaded. In Tanganyika the Germans used the Rugaruga to defeat their fellow Africans.



 





AFRICAN REACTION TOWARDS COLONIAL RULE


The imposition of colonial rule in Africa did not go unchallenged, the Africans reaction to colonial rule was not homogeneous it varied from one society to another. The techniqueswhich the Africans used against the colonial rules establishment included the following:-


(a) Active resistance.

This was a physical African reaction characterized by the use of arms or violence against the establishment of colonial rule. Sometimes, active resistances was a spontaneous reaction while in some societies, it needed long preparations. Active resistance occurred in societies that were economically strong and capable of staging a strong resistance. This method was used by the Hehe in Tanganyika against the Germans and the Nandi against the British in Kenya.


(b) Passive resistance.

This was a form of African reaction against colonial rule and penetration which did not involve the use of arms or violence but the colonized people simply refused to cooperate or to have any contacts with the colonizers. Thisform of African reaction was due to natural calamities such as diseases that hindered the Africans to stage an active resistance. The Maasai for example are naturally war like people but during the establishment of colonial rule, they reacted passively because they had been weakened by Cholera.


(c) Adaptation technique.

This was used where the African ruling class sought friendship from the colonizers so that they can get arms and new fighting techniques. It should be noted that these arms and the new fighting tactics, were used against the same colonizers who gave them the arms. Adaptation technique was used by King Menelik of Ethiopia who sought friendship from the Italians to obtain guns, but he used the same weapons to defeat the Italians in 1895.


THE DEFEAT OF AFRICAN RESISTANCES


Most of the African societies which decided to oppose colonial rule were defeated by the European powers. There were various factorsthat contribute to the defeat of African resistances.


1. Military weakness of the Africans.

The African societies had inferior weapons compared to the Europeans; Most of Africans were using spears and arrows and yet the Europeans were using machine guns. The possession of this powerful weapon contributed to the defeat of resistances such as that of the Hehe against the Germans in Tanganyika and the Nandi resistance against the British in Kenya.


2. Lack of national consciousness and unity.

Lack of national consciousness and unity partly contributed to the defeat of Africans resistances for examples; the Germans easily defeated the Hehe in Tanganyika because the Sangu and Bena collaborated with the Germans. The British also defeated Lobengula in Zimbabwe because chief Lewanyika of the Lozi Kingdom collaboration with the British.


3. Natural hazards

Some African societies were defeated because of their material conditions which made them unable to put up a stiff resistance. These conditions were natural hazards such as diseases. The Maasai of East Africa could not put a stiff resistance because they were suffering from cholera and their cattle had been killed by render pest.


4. Influence of the Missionaries.

The Missionaries had a role to play in the defeat of African resistances. The Missionaries brain washed the minds of the Africans by preaching obedience which reduced African resistance to colonial rule. For example; the Buganda in Uganda and the Fante in Nigeria never resisted colonial rule because of the teaching of the Missionaries.


5. Succession disputes.

Succession disputes also contributed to the defeat of African resistances. Succession disputes brought about divisions which made it possible for the colonial powers to side with one group against the other in Buganda, for example, Semei Kakungulu sided with the British to defeat Mwanga.


6. Lack of good fighting techniques.

Lack of good fighting techniques went hand in hand with the absence of strong leadership which was needed to stage a strong resistance. A case in point was the Majimaji resistance which lacked adequate leadership and proper fighting techniques, hence contributing to its defeat by the Germans.


Defeat of Africans



TRANSITION FROM COMPETITIVE CAPITALISM TO MONOPOLY CAPITALISM


Competitive capitalism refers to the second stage of capitalism that existed after industrial revolution in Europe in 1750, where by European nations were competing themselves in Industrial production. This was done in terms of production of raw materials, monopolizing trade and market. Therefore under industrial capitalism there rose bitter struggle/stiff competition among European capitalists for production, whoever in the course of this stage some capitalist were died while others who were able to compete grow richer and reached to a stage of monopoly capitalism, hence in order to survive the capitalists increased labour productivity which was done through introduction of more efficient machines hence competitive capitalism was always progressive because of time and free trade and accelerated to the rise of monopoly capitalism.


Characteristics of Competitive Capitalism


The following are some of the characteristics of competitive Capitalism.


1. During this period the role of the state was minimal, this was because of the belief of free trade, and this sometimes was called “laissez faire policy”.


2. Most of the enterprises were small and competitive in nature hence there was no monopoly in market, area for investment, getting labor and monopoly of getting raw materials because each enterprise was competing with another to get economic motive.


3. During this period raw materials from Africa were important but not crucial because raw materials were only needed to be used in monopoly companies which had started to monopolize the market, areas for getting labor and raw materials.


4. The tariff policies (trade barriers) were still protective in nature because each nation was still protecting her home market in order to allow merchants to involve in trade at home without any competition from outside merchants.


5. Banks were not controlling production but they were only the agents of payment where by banks provided capitals, loans and credit to the merchants to continue involve themselves in trade for development of capitalism but not these banks but not these bans were involved in production.


6. Competitive capitalism was characterized by the growth of industries where by industries grew specifically for producing manufactured goods which were needed and sold by industrial capitalist in Europe (Britain).


Factors for Transition from Competitive Capitalism to Monopoly Capitalism


1. Emergence of monopoly companies that was able to swallow small companies. Due to emergence of big companies with huge amount of capital, the small companies could not fit in the competition hence monopolization of the major economic activities and the decline of competitive capitalism.


2. Export of capital, during this period there emerged big companies which were exported to industries, banks, and companies. These led companies to get double profit which accelerated the rise of monopoly capitalism.


3. Emergence of cut throat competition among the European countries. The stiff competition led weak companies to be swallowed by the strongest among European nations. Example Britain, Japan, France, Italy, etc. Therefore this competition resulted to the strongest to continue in monopoly stage while the weak died in the competitive capitalism.


4. The division of the world among the big imperialist nations which was done at the Berlin conference; this accelerated the colonization of Africa and big capitalist powers were able to get capitalist demands and be able to maximize profits and establish strong monopolistic companies which led them to transform from competitive capitalism.


5. Concentration of production and centralization of capital was another factor for transition from competitive capitalism to monopoly capitalism. Europeans concentrated in both manufacturing of goods and raw materials which led to acquisition of more capital which was invested and reinvested especially in big industries together with big monopolistic companies which enabled them to acquire more profit for trade circulation and for more investments in economic sectors hence transformed the form of capitalism.


6. The rise of philosophical ideas due to high education and research and this led unit almagation of European companies as a way to maximize profit. E.g. Small industries which were established during monopoly capitalism under one merchant was joined together and even the capital from those companies was joined together form a big finance.


7. The Rise of European nationalism. The unification of European nations example the unification of Germany and Italy and the rise of other European nationalism acted as a transition from competitive to monopoly capitalism because the unification expanded market, labor, easy circulation of trade and the nations started to compete among themselves by establishing big companies which all these led to the transition from competitive capitalism to monopoly capitalism.


8. Relate the subsequent division of the world between capitalist alliances with the development of monopoly capitalism. 

 Monopoly Capitalism (London)

citylab

TOPIC 2: THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY IN EUROPE.

TOPIC 2: THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY IN EUROPE.

history A level form 6 topic 2

TOPIC 2: THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY IN EUROPE.

Background to the Rise of Democracy in Europe

Democracy can be defined as system of government by the people and for the people. It can also be defined as a form of government in which all people can choose their leaders and hold them accountable for their policies and conduct in office.Democracy entails the key elements of basic human rights, free and fair elections and equality of all people before the law.

Original of Democracy in the World

Democracy is said to be originated from two Greek words, namely “Demos” which means rule of power or authority. Generally the term democracy can simply mean the rule of people who are divided by their own concern.

Historically Democracy was said to be practiced for the first time in ancient Greek especially during the 300BC years ago which basically was under direct democratic system. Due to the shortage of number of Authorians in Greek in which who ever in the state had a choice of providing a suggestion so as to promote the social, economic and political matters of the state. Later due to the increase of populations there was a need of indirect democracy (Representatives).

Democracy spread to other ports of the world especially in England and France. It was achieved through revolutions (17th C England and 18th C-France). Later democracy spread to USA, the rise of democracy in America act as the main bridge to the rise abd spread of democracy in the world.

The principle that governed politics in Europe before the rise of democracy:

a. Absolutism

This was one of the main principles that governed politics in Europe. Throughout Europe in the period before the French revolution of 1789, the government was in the hands of few individuals. The individuals had absolute power and in most cases their positions were hereditary.

In France, the king was above the law and not controlled by it. He had power to have an individual arrested and imprisoned during “the king’s pleasure” through the famous “letter de cachet”.

b. Divine right of the king.

This was the belief that the power of monarchies was given directly by God and thus monarchs were answerable only to God. Any opposition to the king was an attack on God himself. Thiswas very true in Britain during the reign of king James I. The same situation occurred in France where it was a serious offense to questions the powers of the king, king Louis XIV once remarked that “I am the state”.

c. Feudal order/ feudalism

Before the rise of democracy, Europe was characterized by feudal order/feudalism and privileged classes. Feudalism as practiced in the kingdom of England was a state of human society which was formally structured and stratified on the basis of land tenure. The land lords were part and parcel of the government. In France, the ancient regime was characterized by distinctive classes of the clergy and the nobles.

d. The church and the state were inseparable

There was a strong relationship between the church and the state in Europe before the rise of democracy. The official faith or religion in France was supposed to be Catholics. The pop could even influence the decisions of the kings of France. In Britain, the official faith or religion was Anglican. All members of the royal family had to be Anglicans.

 Origin of Democracy

THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION (THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION) 1640 - 1689

The English revolution refers to series of events in Britain that led to the collapse of feudalism and destroyed absolutism and serfdom in Great Britain.

There were series of conflicts in Britain; the commercial bourgeoisie were determined to destroy feudalism. The bourgeoisie wanted to make the crown an overall leader of England without the assistance of the landlords.

Another conflict was the control of the common land because the monarchy was against the enclosure system. Due to these conflicts, the democracy was abolished in 1649 but the king was restored as the head of the state.

The revolution was also characterized with the replacement of the Roman Catholic king, James II with the protestant one, William III.

There was also the passage of the bill of rights which included the following;

a. Any English monarchy must be a member of the Anglican Church.

b. The king has no powers to increase taxes without the general consent of the parliament.

c. The elections of the members of parliament should be free.

d. It declared that there should be frequent parliamentary elections.

Causes of the English Revolution

1. Heavy taxation

The merchants were gaining a lot of influence, hence the king decided to impose heavy taxes on the merchants so as to control their growing influence. Taxes hindered business activities which forced the merchants to rise up and overthrow the government.

2. Principle of divine right of the king.

The king argued that he was an absolute and his power could not be questioned by man. The British people wanted this principle to be changed because they wanted a king who will be answerable to them.

3. Role of English philosophers.

The English philosophers also contributed to the pot break of the English. Their writings enlightened the English people about weakness of old system. John Locke an English philosopher attacked the monarchy as being autocratic and oppressive in nature. John Locke wanted a king who will be accountable to the people. These writings partly prompted the English people to stage a revolution.

4. Role of Oliver Cromwell.

Oliver Cromwell contributed to the outbreak of English revolution by uniting the people to remove the dictatorial monarchy. He was protesting against religious discrimination and all forms of dictatorships in England. Oliver Cromwell even suggested that King Charles has to be assassinated to pave a way for the establishment of a new government.

5. Enclosure system.

The enclosure system was an agreement reached in parliament by wealthy landowners to buy small peasants landless consequently the peasants appealed to the king to stop the process of enclosure. The king tried to stop the enclosure system but his actions worsened relations between him and the wealthy.

6. The emergency of classical economists.

The emergence of classical economists played huge role in the outbreak of the English revolution. Economists such as Adam smith, David Ricardo and Thomas Malthus advocated private property and individual freedom in economic life of a society. Their views brought awareness among the people thus leading to the English evolution.

7. Religious conflicts.

There were religious conflicts in 1531 where king Henry VII declared himself the king of Church of England, this action drew resistance from some of the church which led to the rise of a group known as puritans. The puritans were dissatisfied with the church and decided to separate themselves from the main stream, the king responded by persecuting them and calling them enemies. This led to the outbreak of the English revolution.

8. Emergency of commercial bourgeoisie class.

The emergency of a bourgeoisie class contributed to the outbreak of the English revolution. This class was determined to conduct business activities in England thus any class of people that tried to hinder their goals was overthrown. The monarchy had failed to introduce liberal economic policies that would support capitalism thus the commercial bourgeoisie joined with the peasants to stage the revolution.

9. Maintenance of discriminative classes.

The maintenance of discriminative classes contributed to the outbreak of the English revolution. The nobility and the clergy were the most privileged class. The middle class consisted of professionals and government officials and the last class consisted of the peasants who were very poor. It was the peasants who united with the commercial bourgeoisie to stage a revolution.

 Civil War in England

The Role of English Revolution in the Rise of Capitalism in England

The English revolution played a great role in the development of capitalism in England. The effects of the revolution paved way for the rise of capitalism.

a. Introduction of free trade.

The new government pursued the laissez faire policy whereby it did not intervene in economic activities. The government allowed the domestic economy to operate fairly with few controls. The absence of government interference encouraged the investors to increase production thus leading to the industrial revolution.

b. Seizure of political power by the merchants.

There was seizure of political power by the merchants; this was a fundamental change in Britain because before the revolution all political powers rested in the hands of the king. The merchants played a great role in abolishing feudalism and introduced capitalism.

c. Unification of England.

The unification of England played a great role in the rise of capitalism. The coming together of Britain, Wales, Scotland and Ireland widened the market thus playing a crucial to support the industrial revolution consequently leading to the rise of capitalism.

d. Abolition of serfdom.

The revolution contributed to the abolition of serfdom and absolutism, there was introduction of a constitution rights. The abolition of serfdom created free workers who were needed by capitalist industries thus leading to the rise of capitalism.

e. Control of the church.

There was confiscation of church land and the church was separated from the state, this created room for the introduction of liberal capitalist ideas which supported the rise of capitalism.

f. Land consolidation.

The revolution abolished feudal land tenure system and put land in the hands of the capitalists who carried out mechanized agriculture which paved way for the rise of the agrarian revolution. The agrarian revolution played a great role in the rise of capitalism.

Impacts of the English Revolution

a) After the revolution the king became ceremonial title because the one who was given power to control the government was the prime minister under the parliamentary government therefore prime minister became the head of the government and the king became a ceremonial leader.

b) Politically the revolution led to the overthrown of the absolute monarchy and the capitalist formed the republic government based on parliamentary supremacy controlled by the capitalists.

c) The Capitalist who formed parliamentary government possessed both economic and political power in Britain, this causes changes in English economy for example it led to abolition of internal taxes, barriers which led to promote trading activities in England, freedom of farming and individual enterprises.

d) The Royal army and soldiers started to be under the control of the government established by the capitalists.

e) The Government funds started to be controlled and approved by the parliament; this means that the parliament had power to budget the government expenditure as it was during monarchy system of the king.

f) All the feudalism elements that remained were removed (dismantled) that is, feudalism as a mode of production collapsed completely after the English political revolution.

g) The Revolution accumulated wealth, through the illegal ways of accumulating wealth (capital) Primitive accumulation of capital such as; plundering, looting etc and free competition in production was adopted which led merchants to start competing each other in production, this was because of merchants who come into power and who was under the development of capitalism.

h) The revolution caused death; many people were badly wounded and there was massive destruction of people’s properties like farms, shops, and workshops.



Contribution of English Revolution to the Rise of Democracy in Britain

i. It brought multiparty political system, basically in Greet Britain where Conservative party and Liberal party were enacted. This give chance to individuals to select the leader of their wishes, hence rise of democracy.

ii. Emergence of shared government. The English revolution of 17th C made the emergence of a shared government between common people and the existing government.

iii. It brought much freedom of worship as they were able to worship the way they wish in any sect.

iv. Respect of human rights. The English revolution gave room to the respect of human right as opposed from the farmer fudor monorchies which demanded the right of human being.

v. The revolution brought realistic constitution. It led to the country governed by the rule of law, all matters of the state follow the principle and law of the country.

vi. Freedom of debate and expression. The England political revolutions played a great role for the rise of democracy in the world. The parliament was given high states of debating bill, to amend laws etc.

vii. The revolutions spreed ideas of democracy to other countries such as France.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789 – 1799)

A revolution is a gradual or sudden change that takes place in the societies politically, economically and social setup. A revolution occurs not because people are just interested in changes but their certain factors on the ground that forces them to stage a revolution.

The French revolution of 1789 marked a turning point in the political history of France. It destroyed a well established monarchy and replaced it with a republican government.

Causes of the French revolution

a. Financial crisis.

The financial crisis was the most immediate and paramount cause of the French revolution. In 1789, the French national treasury ran bankrupt to the extent of failing to pay workers. The bankrupt was due to the frequent wars which France fought example the seven years war with Britain (1756 – 1763) over colonies in India and Canada, and American war of independence. The bankrupt was also caused by the luxury life at the king’s palace. This crisis worsened the problems of the French thus contributing to the revolution.

b. Despotic aristocracy.

The French aristocracy was despotic; all French kings right from Louis XIV, XV and XVI were despotic kings, whose powers could not be questioned. They possessed all political powers like making all important political decisions and policies. There was no written constitution to check the powers of the king. There was also no written laws to control the actions of the king, this meant that, the king’s word was the law, example; king Louis the XVI ones remarked that “something is legal because i wish it” this kind of despotism made the revolution inevitable by 1789.

c. Character of King Louis XVI.

There was a weak administration in France especially that of Louis XVI. He was corrupt, inefficient and inconsistent in his policies, that is he could at times show signs of helping the peasants but shortly thereafter he withdraws his good intention.

Besides the above the king was under the strong influence of his wife Marie Antoinette, she was an Austrian princess who was hated by the French people because she was not ready to help peasants.

d. French class structure.

The maintenance of discriminative classes contributed to the outbreak of the French revolution. The French population was divided into three discriminative classes namely the first estate, second estate and third estate. The first estate consisted of the nobility who enjoyed the highest salaries and key positions in the government and the military. The second estate comprised of the clergy (Bishops and Priests). This grouped lived in urban areas and owned large estates of land and were exempt from paying taxation. The last class consisted of the peasants who paid all taxes both direct and indirect. The problems of the third estate forced them to stage a revolution in 1789.

e. Intellectual movements.

These intellectual movements especially those of philosophers played a significant role in enlightening the French people about the political and economic crisis in France. They exposed the abuse of power by the government philosophers such as Voltaire advocated for fair taxation policies. Montesquieu advocated for separation of power in the government. The enlightenment of the French people about their political forced them to stage a revolution in 1789.

f. American war of independence.

The American war of independence led to both economic and political effects which were exploited by the rich middle class and the peasants to stage a revolution. Politically this war failed them with a strong desire for establishment of a democratic and constitutional government. Economically, the war partially worsened the financial crisis because it was expensive to maintain soldiers abroad.

g. Economic crisis.

During the 18 th C, France experienced a rapid growth in her population and yet the agricultural and industrial production remained low thus leading to food shortage. There was also another problem of unemployment which affected the living standards of the people. Amidst this growing population and unemployment, there was also persistent inflation. These severe conditions forced the French to stage a revolution in 1789.

h. Dismissal of financial controllers.

The dismissal of financial controllers had a role to play in the outbreak of the French revolution. Turgot and Necker had been appointed by the king to oversee the economic condition of France, but these were later dismissed following the advice of the queen. The financial controllers revealed the heavy cost incurred by the king and his members.

i. The march of the women.

The marching of the women at Versailles demanding bread, land and equality sparked off the French revolution. Marie Antoinette provoked the demonstrators by saying that “If you cannot afford bread, go and buy cakes” this statement made both the king and the queen more unpopular in France.

In conclusion by 1789 there was enough material for combustion, what was lacking was a spark to see the materials ablaze. People had enough grievances; all they needed was a leader, thus the mobilization and organization of the middle class made the revolution.

 French Revolution

The Effects of the French revolution

a. Elimination of feudalism

The French revolution contributed to the elimination of feudalism and the consequent rise of capitalism. The new government that was established after the revolution was abolition of feudalism and introduced capitalist relations of production, whereby the major means of production were controlled by the private sectors.

b. Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

The French revolution contributed to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to power. It destroyed the discriminative classes that had made it difficult for anyone in the third estate to rise to power. Following the French revolution, promotion was based on merit and not birth. Napoleon was able to display his skills during the revolution which helped him to rise to power.

c. Development of social infrastructure.

After the election of Napoleon Bonaparte, he improved the social infrastructure system by building more roads and railways and various financial institutions. These changes played a great role in the rise of capitalism in France.

d. Introduction of unity.

The French revolution introduced unity in France, whereby all people were equal before the law. People were free to conduct any type of business of their choice; this is what contributed to the rise of capitalism.

e. Development of nationalism.

The French revolution inspired the spirit of nationalism among the French people. The revolution which advocated for equality, fraternity and liberty became a lesson to the French to fight against absolute monarchies like that of Louis XVI. These ideas were able to spread beyond the French borders.

f. Establishment of a republican government.

The French revolution contributed to the destruction of the bourbon monarchy and put in place a republican government in 1792. This was the government that played a crucial role in the abolition of feudalism and the consequent rise of capitalism.

g. Control of the church.

One of the most important changes of the French revolution was the control of the church. The Bishops were to be paid by the state like any other civil servants, the church was also not supposed to levy taxes. It was completely detached from state affairs.

h. Abolition of slave trade.

The French revolution contributed to the abolition of slave trade in French colonies. The French claimed that slave trade was not in line with its slogan of the revolution thus it had to be abolished.

THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS IN EUROPE

1848 has been regarded as the year of revolution in Europe. The revolutions broke out mainly in France and the Austrian empire. There were mainly directed against the spirit of the Vienna arrangement of 1815. In France, the 1848 revolutions contributed to the downfall of Louis Philippe and his Orleans monarchy, while in Austria Empire the 1848 revolutions lead to the downfall of Metternich.

Common Features of the 1848 Revolutions

a. Reaction against the Vienna settlement.

The 1848 revolutions were opposed to the Vienna settlement of 1815 thus the revolutions were either nationalists or liberal in nature. In Germany and Italy states, there was a strong feeling for national unity and political independence. In France and Hungary, there were strong feelings for liberal ideas.

b. Urban based revolutions.

The 1848 revolutions were urban centered and with less impact on the country side. They were common in cities like Paris, Berlin, Rome and Milan.

c. Lack of mass mobilization.

The 1848 revolutions was started and led by intellectuals such as university professors, poets, journalists and teachers. The merchant class also took an active role in organizing the revolutions. The peasants were not actively involved and perhaps this explains why these revolutions were short lived.

d. Reaction against the side effects of the industrial revolution.

The 1848 revolutions erupted in less industrialized countries of Europe such as France and Austria whose economies were based on agriculture. The spread of the industrial revolution from Britain led to various effects which left many people dissatisfied. The workers were exploited and oppressed through low wages and long working hours.

e. Promotion of the French revolutionary ideals.

The 1848 revolutions promoted the ideals of the French revolution. There was a lot in common between the 1848 revolutions and the French revolution. There was formation of national guards to protect the gains of the revolutions, liberal constitutions were advocated for to protect peoples’ political liberty.

f. Short lived revolutions.

Most of the 1848 revolutions failed by the end of 1849 to achieve their desire and goals, they were only partially successful in France where the Orleans monarchy was forced out of power. The provisional government that was established was too weak to solve the problems of the French population.

In the case of Austrian empire, the 1848 revolution in Piedmont, Hungary and Prussia to a certain extent forced the respective governments to grant liberal constitutions but by the end of 1849 they were defeated and the constitutions were withdrawn.



Causes of the 1848 Revolutions in Europe

a. Nationalism

Politically there was a strong spirit of nationalism among the Italians and Germans. They resented foreign domination of Austria and strongly advocated for national unity and national political independence. The spirit of nationalism thus contributed to the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions.

b. Liberal constitutions (liberalism).

The desire for liberalism had grown too strong especially in France and hungry. People demanded for political reforms of the existing political systems. They advocated for constitutional governments which by then were lacking. In France, Louis Philippe had risen to power on the ticket of preserving constitutional rights of the French people but by 1848 the French were still denied expansion of franchise (voting rights).

In Hungary, the people demanded for independence and constitutional parliaments so that their political rights could be protected.

c. Widespread discontent.

The Metternich system had caused a lot of discontent in the Austrian empire. There was a package of strict regulations introduced by Metternich to preserve the spirit and arrangement of the Vienna settlement. Metternich always used force to check the growth of liberalism and nationalism. In 1819, he introduced the Carls bad law which banned people’s freedom. The press was concerned, political parties were banned and nationalist leaders were imprisoned. These conditions forced people to stage the 1848 revolutions.

d. Economic problems.

The spread of the industrial revolution to the Austrian empire and France had side effects which forced the people to join the 1848 revolutions. The industrial revolution was championed by the capitalists who wanted to maximize profits by exploiting the workers. There was mass unemployment, low wages and long working hours. The masses demanded economic reforms but their respective governments were slow to respond thus they decided to stage a revolution.

e. Role of the socialists.

The ideas of socialism contributed to the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions in Europe. The socialists mobilized the workers into a strong force that played an active part in the 1848 revolutions. The workers were promised better working and living conditions.

f. Natural calamities.

Natural calamities partly sparked off the 1848 revolutions in France and the Austrian empire between 1846 and 1847, there was general bad weather in Austrian empire and France which was characterized by heavy rains which destroyed crops. The poor harvests were followed by severe food shortages. To make matters worse, there was an outbreak of epidemics such as typhoid and cholera. These conditions create a good atmosphere for the 1848 revolutions.

g. Chain reaction.

The success of the revolution in France of February 1848 inspired similar revolutions throughout the Austrian empire because of common existing political, social and economic conditions. Following the revolution in France, Louis Philippe and his Orleans monarchy was pushed out of power. In March, the revolution spread to piedmont, Sicily and Prussia. It is from this point that historians concluded that “whenever France coughs, the rest of Europe catches cold” the revolution in France provided a practical example to the already discontented masses in the Austrian empire.

Conclusion

Therefore, it follows from the above that the 1848 revolutions, mainly broke out because of paramount political consideration the social and economic distress only facilitated the pace of the revolutionary mood.

Role of the 1848 Revolutions in the Rise of Democracy

a. Establishments of constitutions.

The revolutions took place in 1848 contributed to the rise of democracy by facilitating the establishment of constitutions. During the 1848 revolutions, people demanded for political reforms of the existing political systems. They advocated for parliamentary democracy and constitutional governments which by then were lacking. In France, the Orleans monarchy was removed from power and constitutional government was established.

b. Demise of feudalism.

The 1848 revolutions contributed to the destruction of feudalism and serfdom in Europe which contributed to the rise of democracy. The absolute monarchies were part and parcel of feudalism and serfdom thus creating a good atmosphere for the rise of democracy.

c. Rise of national consciousness.

1848 revolutions played a crucial role in the rise of national consciousness (feeling) in Europe which contributed to the rise of democracy. In German and Italian states, there was a strong national feeling that aimed at achieving national unity and national political independence.

d. Overthrow of the papacy regimes

The 1848 revolutions played a great role in the overthrow of the papacy regimes in Italy consequently contributing to the rise of democracy in Europe. Republican such as Mazzini and Garibaldi contributed significantly to the unification of Italy which laid a foundation for the establishment of democracy.

e. Emergency of the capitalist class.

The 1848 revolutions contributed to the rise of democracy in Europe by destroying feudalism and paving way for the rise of the merchant class which was very fundamental in the rise of capitalism and democracy in Europe.

Conclusion

Although the 1848 revolutions generally failed, they provided important lessons for future nationalists and liberal leaders. They lead the ground for future dynamic and strong leadership that played a great role in the Italian and German unification. In case of Italy, they lead to the rise of count Camilla Carvour and victor Emmanuel II. In case of Germany, there was the rise of Otto Von Bismarck. 

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